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圖：Bournemouth的街景
後記：第一份報告全文刊載，要求一千五百字，結果在刪了八百字後，還是剩下兩千字，希望大家看的懂。
Question:
According to Katz (1991) the new media technologies have led to the “end of journalism”. To what extent is this true?
Introduction
With the development of new media technologies and the pace of change and progress, journalism has faced challenges from different fields. Katz (1991) claims that the new media technologies have led to the “end of journalism”. This is the sign of the concern about how journalism could face this rapid technological changes. The challenge to journalism comes not only form how to use the new media technologies but it also questions the role of the journalist. Pavlik (2000:p229) comments: “Journalism has always been shaped by technology.” Traditional journalism has been changed because of the new developments in media technology.
The growth of market and business needs are the main elements of the new technology development. The discussion below will define new technology as online or electronic. Its features include: (1). increased reach, range speed, (2).decentralization of news gathering, (3).high capacity, (4).reduced costs of transmission, (5).flexibility of form, content, use, (6).real time reporting: the “openness” of the visual. These new media technologies have led journalism into a new era.
New media technology has also challenged the journalist’s professional responsibilities- gathering, selecting, and delivering. Tom Koch (1991, p.xxii) describe News as, “objectivity, fairness, completeness, scepticism” and at least minimal completeness in its treatment of any single event or issue. Journalism is being forced to face the challenge coming from the new media technology. It is not only refining the meaning of news but also reshaping the role of journalists.
Technology is like a coin with two sides. It could be better for journalism or the end of journalism. Pavlik (2000), refers to four different ways that new technology has affected journalism: (1) the way journalists do their job; (2) the content of news; (3) The structure of the newsroom and news organisations- the rise of the digital newsroom; (4) the relationship between journalists, audience, and the news source. These four angles provide a way to examine the new relationship between new media technology and journalism and how deeply they interact.
1. The way journalists do their job
New technology has totally changed the way journalists do their job, whether for better or worse. Previously journalists had to reach the news location or do face-to-face interviews for gathering their information or stories, but now with the new technology, they can work more effectively. Christopher (1999) points out that Internet technology has helped journalists add depth to breaking news stories.
The Internet has also brought the decentralization of news gathering. Journalists don’t only need to rely on the official sources. They can use online tools to gather more background information, statistics, contact lists, and even check facts on the website.
However, there are also some problems with Internet interviews. Faced with an enormous amount of information on the net, journalists may have to turn back to official institutions for validation. New technology might also cause journalists to become lazy, to trust an authority with a biased version. They can get so much information without interviewing or investigating the facts, just repeating the news or trusting just one news source- for example, in the Gulf war only trusting army spokesmen- and this is very dangerous.
To some extent, digital technology also brings easy and cheap equipment for journalists. It means a reporter might use a video camera or be his own editor. Digital equipment meets the need of deadlines and even updates immediately the news breaks. Easy equipment use also provides journalists with more convenience to do their interview in any location. They can use new digital equipment, mini-dv or mobile phone transmission, to help them achieve some difficult reports in difficult environments, like war.
At the same time, easy equipment use might cause more pressure for reporters. This might be a bad influence on reporters when a journalist needs to act as production crew by himself. (John, 2000) They also need to learn more and more knowledge to use PC or digital equipment. New technology is not only changing the way they operate the news but also the way they think about the news. But there are some basic operations that still need to be followed to recheck the facts, objectivity, and impartiality. Even in the Internet world, you still need to use your journalistic skills to deal with these issues.
2. News Content
Technology has changed both the way the news is delivered and the content of news. More access and more information means creating more opportunities for achieving objectivity. Journalists have more news sources and statistics to prove and test the credibility of their news source.
Technology has also changed the speed and the way to deliver news content. News stories updates have changed from once or twice a day to hourly bulletins. The Internet even updates immediately, as news breaks. This quick tempo also shapes the way news has become more a form of entertainment, depending on effects or stimulating the audience’s emotions.
The new technology- satellite communication, mobile phone, and the Internet- brings news reporting increasing reach, range, and speed. Real time reporting is one of the most obvious changes in journalism. It meets the demand of the “now”, “real time” market and provides the “openness” of visual. Satellite technology delivers the fastest news to the audience at the same time as the journalists receive it. The Gulf War was the first example of a real time war on the TV screen. It gave the audience the opportunity to see the whole war at the same time. However, real time could also mean less, or even no reflection, by the journalist. Katz (1992) criticizes the real time reporting in the Gulf War as follows:
“There was nonstop information without interpretation, and nonstop interpretation without information. CNN provide information and experts galore to provide interpretation. Leaders and public stayed tuned full time, but almost everybody agree that, journalistically speaking, it was a poor show.”(Quoted in Elihu Katz, journal of communication, Vol42:3, 1992, p.8)
The same criticism can be made of the TV stories which the reported September 11 attack. By the end of the first day, TV had given the audience non-stop live reporting-including the airplane hitting the World Trade Centre-without understanding the who, what, when, where and how. David T.Z. (2002, p.23) comments that although the audience had a clear understanding of the event but they still did not have a reason why.
Real time reporting provides the audience with the chance to access the raw sources but the question is: does that mean people get closer to the truth, or simply the more they see the less they know.
Real time reporting is one of the biggest challenges and changes to journalistic performance. It has resulted in an unavoidable competition for chasing speed in the news market. The problem is not real time reporting, but whether journalists forget their duty to check facts and be fair to both sides. Journalists have to bear their professional responsibility in mind all the time, no matter what changes occur with new technology.
3. The structure of the newsroom and news organisation
Technology also brings a new challenge to the structure of the newsroom and news organisations. Digital technology is the biggest challenge to journalism. The influence of digital journalism on work procedures is self-evident. Through digital technology, the boundaries between different forms of media- TV, radio, newspaper, and the internet- are becoming blurred.
Different forms of information can be used in the same platform. High capacity, flexibility of form, content, and use also provide a variety information and less time needed. “Stories are assigned to reports who gather news, and then the information gathered is packaged for distribution via any of a number of media outlets…This combined news-gathering operation is highly efficient and cost-effective” (John Pavlik, 2000, pp.234).
The digital newsroom is not only changing the procedures of the news gathering operation, but it is also refining the relationship between the editor and the journalist. Cost cutting and greater efficiency might create more freedom for journalists or force them to do more jobs with fewer people. The new technology might aggravate the unbalanced relationship between capitalist and employees. Cost cutting forcing fewer journalists to do the same or more work, might cause the end of professional responsibility- selecting and judging the news.
New technology, especially online journalism, provides more and more opportunities to create news sites on the Internet. It creates individual journalist and a change in media organisations. Online technology not only refines the character of journalists so that they become multi-skilled (Parker1995:52) but it also changes the operation of the organization.
Different Media have had to develop their own multimedia platforms. Newspapers, radio, TV have had to create their own websites and other multimedia forms to attract more audience and market.
Competition gives the opportunity to advertising to influence the editorial content. “The lines between advertising and editorial are blurring” (John Pavlik, 2000, pp.233). The market is the important power that we can’t ignore when we try to understand new media technology. The market and advertising has a greater opportunity to challenge the professional responsibility of the journalist. This power can affect news selection and weaken the role of journalists.
New technology might bring more freedom to journalists, or replace them. However, nobody can be sure that digital news rooms or new technology are equal to the quality of the journalism. The credibility of news organisations and the professional responsibility of journalists are the basic values of journalism.
4. The relationship between journalists and audiences
New technology has transformed the relationship between journalists and audiences. People can access information and news sources by themselves. Through your computer you can see, for example, the NEW YORK TIMES or GUARDIAN at any time and anywhere in the world. One example was the Starr Report concerning The Clinton-Lewinsky scandal. Audiences could access the whole report at the same time as the journalists. But receiving the raw news sources does not always mean the triumph of the audience. It might mean that the audience has to judge the news sources by themselves.
Interactivity is another most important element to distinguish the new technology from traditional journalism. This not only provides instant feedback from audiences but also helps organistions understand their target audiences. It increases the knowledge of the media to provide more information that audiences want.
However, more information could mean less understanding. When a torrent of information overwhelms the audience, readers and viewers might feel lost and confused in the midst of mounds.
Also, an organisation may only provide information, which is positive for it and which simply propagandizes. Readers or viewers have to take time to select from the information or trust their journalist. New technology could bring benefits to both audience and journalist. The audience can access information by themselves and the media can edit more effectively, and provide impartial reporting.
Conclusion
New technology will possibly confuse the role of the journalist or even replace his work. It may be that, as Katz (1991) says “the new media technologies have led to the “end of journalism”. But in another way, we can regard technology as” just a tool” (Kurtzwei). The fact is that new technology has come and we don’t know where technology is going (Paul, 2000).
The future of journalism might be to create more people using new technology to act as journalists and leave the professional responsibility of journalists submerged with the new technology
Journalists don’t need to use new technology just because it exists. They only need to use it when they need it. Journalists should judge when and how to use new technology rather than be controlled by it. The truth is that journalists face a different work environment and new technology has a deep influence on the way they work. Their job has become much tougher than before.
Facing the new era of new technology, journalists always have to remember that some thing won’t change, and that is their professional responsibility-to select what is news and what is not news for their audience.
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