多元觀點多元史觀 歷史不是一言談 多元史觀才可以看到方方面面 多元社會要展現的是 化解爭議 而不是兩元分化 山林是勝地 一營戀變成市朝 書畫是雅事 一貪痴便成商賈 蓋心無染著 欲境是仙都 心有繫戀 樂境成苦海矣。

321愛的鼓勵 1訂閱站台

https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary

 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/24836-blood

anaesthesia

noun [ U ] mainly UK (US usually anesthesia)

UK  /ˌæn.əsˈθiː.zi.ə/ /ˌæn.əsˈθiː.ʒə/ US  /ˌæn.əsˈθiː.zi.ə/ /ˌæn.əsˈθiː.ʒə/

a state in which someone does not feel pain, usually because of drugs they have been given

（通常指被施用藥物後的）麻醉狀態

MEDICAL   specialized

the quality of being unable to feel heat, cold, pain, touch, etc.

感覺缺失，麻木

antidote

anti dote

noun [ C ]

UK  /ˈæn.ti.dəʊt/ US  /ˈæn.t̬i.doʊt/

a chemical, especially a drug, that limits the effects of a poison

解毒劑；（尤指）解藥

Sales of nerve gas antidotes increased dramatically before the war.

在戰爭爆發前，神經毒氣解毒劑銷量激增。

a way of preventing or acting against something bad

矯正方法；緩解辦法；對抗手段

Regular exercise is the best antidote to tiredness and depression.

經常鍛煉是消除疲勞和憂鬱的最好方法。

biopsy

biopsy

noun [ C ]

UK  /ˈbaɪ.ɒp.si/ US  /ˈbaɪ.ɑːp.si/

the process of removing and examining a small amount of tissue from a sick person, in order to discover more about their illness

檢體

a tissue biopsy

 delusion

noun [ C or U ]

UK  /dɪˈluː.ʒən/ US  /dɪˈluː.ʒən/

belief in something that is not true

幻想；錯覺

[ + that ] He's under the delusion that he will be promoted this year.

他懷有自己今年會得到晉升的錯覺。

hallucination

noun [ C or U ]

UK  /həˌluː.sɪˈneɪ.ʃən/ US  /həˌluː.səˈneɪ.ʃən/

an experience in which you see, hear, feel, or smell something that does not exist, usually because you are ill or have taken a drug

幻覺

A high temperature can cause hallucinations.

高溫可使人産生幻覺。

auditory/olfactory hallucinations

幻聽／幻嗅

chromosome

chromosome

noun [ C ]

UK  /ˈkrəʊ.mə.səʊm/ US  /ˈkroʊ.mə.soʊm/

any of the rod-like structures found in all living cells, containing the chemical patterns that control what an animal or plant is like

染色體

X and Y chromosomes

Ｘ染色體和Ｙ染色體

sex chromosomes

性染色體

disease containment 疾病控制

美國疾病管制與預防中心

（英語：Centers for Disease Control and Prevention，縮寫為CDC）

contain ment

noun [ U ]

UK  /kənˈteɪn.mənt/ US  /kənˈteɪn.mənt/

the act of controlling or limiting something or someone harmful

控制；抑制；阻止

Containment of crowd violence was the police's main concern.

阻止群體暴力事件的發生是警方最關注的事。

POLITICS   specialized

an attempt to keep another country's political power within limits without having a war with them

（對他國政治力量的）遏制

The government is pursuing a policy of containment.

政府在奉行遏制政策。

efficacy of a drug

efficacy

noun [ U ]   formal

UK  /ˈef.ɪ.kə.si/ US  /ˈef.ə.kə.si/

the ability, especially of a medicine or a method of achieving something, to produce the intended result

功效，效力，效能

They recently ran a series of tests to measure the efficacy of the drug.

他們最近進行了一系列的試驗來檢測這種藥的功效。

What is Efficacy?

Download PDF Copy

Dr. Ananya Mandal, MD

By Dr. Ananya Mandal, MD

Reviewed by Sally Robertson, B.Sc.

In medical terms, efficacy refers to the ability of a product or treatment to provide a beneficial effect.

Image Credit: Wanannc / Shutterstock

Image Credit: Wanannc / Shutterstock

Healthcare

Drug Discovery eBook

Drug Discovery Industry Focus eBook

Compilation of the top interviews, articles, and news in the last year.

Download a free copy

In the context of healthcare, the efficacy of a product to yield therapeutic benefits is explored. Interventions that may be explored include drugs, medical devices, surgical procedures and public health interventions

The intervention is compared to other interventions available at the time and efficacy is established if the new intervention is at least as good as the others available. Typically, these types of comparisons are made in randomized clinical trials.

Pharmacology

In pharmacology, efficacy describes the maximum response that can be achieved with a drug. The effect of the drug is plotted against dose in a graph, to give the dose–response curve. The increasing doses used are displayed by the X axis and the half maximal and maximal responses are displayed by the Y axis. The highest point on the curve shows the maximum response (efficacy) and is referred to as the Emax.

The effectiveness of a drug is considered in two distinct ways, “method effectiveness” and “use” effectiveness.

Method effectiveness refers to the maximum response that is achieved when the drug is taken exactly as prescribed, while use effectiveness describes the response obtained when the drug is used under typical circumstances, when adherence to the drug may not be 100%.

The use effectiveness which is typically assessed during “intention to treat” analysis of clinical studies is often biased compared to the findings obtained when method effectiveness is used.

voluntary euthanasia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary_euthanasia

euthanasia

noun [ U ]

UK  /ˌjuː.θəˈneɪ.ʒə/ US  /ˌjuː.θəˈneɪ.ʒə/

the act of killing someone who is very ill or very old so that they do not suffer any more

安樂死

Although some people campaign for the right to euthanasia, it is still illegal in most countries.

儘管有些人發起運動爭取安樂死的權利，但在大多數國家中實施安樂死仍是違法行爲。

su i cide  輸贏賽的

noun

UK  /ˈsuː.ɪ.saɪd/ US  /ˈsuː.ə.saɪd/

suicide noun (DEATH)

B2 [ C or U ]

the act of killing yourself intentionally, or a person who has done this

自殺；自殺者

to attempt/commit suicide

企圖自殺／自殺

The suicide rate among men between the ages of 16 and 25 has risen alarmingly.

Many suicides occur in prisons.

All the evidence points to suicide.

The family were shattered at the news of Annabel's suicide.

She tried to commit suicide by slashing her wrists.

The prime suspect in the case committed suicide.

When the scandal broke , the company director committed suicide.

suicide noun (DEFEAT)

any act that has the effect of causing your own defeat

自殺性的行為；自取滅亡的行為

[ + to infinitive ] As a leader he knows that it is political suicide to appear indecisive.

manslaughter

noun [ U ]   LAW

UK  /ˈmænˌslɔː.tər/ US  /ˈmænˌslɑː.t̬ɚ/

the crime of killing a person when the killer did not intend to do it or cannot be responsible for his or her actions

過失殺人，誤殺；無行為能力者所犯的殺人罪行

murder 在英語-中文（繁體）詞典中的翻譯

murder

noun [ C or U ]

UK  /ˈmɜː.dər/ US  /ˈmɝː.dɚ/

B1

the crime of intentionally killing a person

謀殺，兇殺

Two sisters have been charged with (= officially accused of) murder.

兩姐妹被控謀殺。

There were three murders in the town last year.

去年鎮上發生了三件謀殺案。

The three were convicted of (= proved guilty of) murder.

這三人被判犯有謀殺罪。

a murder weapon (= a weapon used to commit a murder)

兇器

hypertension

hypertension

noun [ U ]   MEDICAL   specialized

UK  /ˌhaɪ.pəˈten.ʃən/ US  /ˌhaɪ.pɚˈten.ʃən/

a medical condition in which your blood pressure is extremely high

高血壓

leukemia

leukaemia

noun [ U ] UK (US leukemia)

UK  /luːˈkiː.mi.ə/ US  /luːˈkiː.mi.ə/

a serious disease in which the body produces too many white blood cells

白血病

menopause

menopause

noun [ U ]

UK  /ˈmen.ə.pɔːz/ US  /ˈmen.ə.pɑːz/

(informal the change (of life))

the time in a woman's life when she gradually stops having periods (= blood flow from her uterus each month)

停經，停經期；更年期

Most women go through menopause (UK also the menopause) between the ages of 45 and 55.

大多數婦女在45歲至55歲之間經歷更年期。

solace

solace

noun [ S or U ]   literary

UK  /ˈsɒl.ɪs/ US  /ˈsɑː.lɪs/

help and comfort when you are feeling sad or worried

安慰，撫慰，慰藉

When his wife left him, he found solace in the bottle (= drank alcohol).

妻子離開他之後，他借酒消愁。

Music was a great solace to me.

音樂對我來說是一種很好的慰藉。

solace

verb [ T ]   literary

UK  /ˈsɒl.ɪs/ US  /ˈsɑː.lɪs/

to give help and comfort to someone when they are feeling sad or worried

安慰，安撫

a diet regimen

re gi men 瑞基門

noun [ C ]   formal

UK  /ˈredʒ.ɪ.mən/ US  /ˈredʒ.ə.mən/

any set of rules about food and exercise that someone follows, especially in order to improve their health

A regimen is a plan, or course of action such as a diet, exercise or medical treatment.  A low-salt diet is a regimen. A course of penicillin is a regimen, and there are many chemotherapy regimens in the treatment of cancer.

（尤指為了增進健康的）生活規則，養生之道，養生法

regimen (n)這個字大家經常看到,但,你知道它有多少意思嗎?

1訓練方法。

The Spartan regimen is called “kisuk”. 這種斯巴達式的訓練方法叫做「奇斯酷」。

2治療步驟。

 If we’re going to make a difference in Africa, we’ve got to simplify the regimens. 如果我們要在非洲產生不同的結果就得簡化治療步驟。

3療法。

 Most hospitals include acupuncture as a standard regimen. 大部份醫院都把針灸列入標準療法。Current antibiotic regimens require patients to pop pills for as long as eight months. 目前的抗生素療法需要患者服用多達八個月的藥物。

4養生方法。

These are regimens that automatically bestow longevity. 這些都是能夠延年益壽的養生方法。

5管理辦法。

Large companies complain that the get-tough accounting regimen is draining resources. 大公司抱怨說這種嚴密的會計管理辦法是在浪費資源。

6制。

 Economists believed it would unnecessarily complicate a straight-forward tax regimen. 經濟學家認為此舉會不必要地讓一個單純的稅制複雜化。

7食療。

 It’s clear that metabolism slows in people on CR regimens. 接受減少熱量食療的人代謝作用明顯減慢。

8計畫。

 His 100-m training regimen was occasionally foiled by sniper fire and bombings. 他的百米訓練計劃常常受到槍彈和砲火的破壞。He maintained a rigorous training regimen even when he wasn’t playing tennis. 就算不打網球的時候他也照樣實施嚴格的訓練計劃。

9規定。

 Depressed people are less likely to stick with diet and exercise regimens. 憂鬱的人比較不可能遵守飲食和運動規定。

Regime 瑞基嗯

noun [ C ]

UK  /reɪˈʒiːm/ US  /reɪˈʒiːm/

regime noun [C] (MANAGEMENT)

C2 mainly disapproving

a particular government or a system or method of government

政府；政權；政體

The old corrupt, totalitarian regime was overthrown.

腐敗的舊極權政府被推翻。

a particular way of operating or organizing a business, etc.

組織方法；管理體制；體系

The regime in this office is hard work and more hard work.

該事務所的管理方式是讓人努力再努力。

 更多範例

The regime tried to silence dissent with a programme of mass murder.

He urged governments worldwide to break diplomatic ties with the new regime.

The government was accused of covert military operations against the regime.

The once docile population has finally risen up against the ruthless regime.

The drafting of a new constitution cannot be a monopoly of the white minority regime

https://medscicommunications.com/2020/09/23/regime-vs-regimen/

The words regime and regimen are often confused by writers. In recent months, I’ve seen the word regime used incorrectly more and more often. I’m sure that, on occasion, it’s simply a mistake made by autocorrect or by a careless, quick tap on the wrong word. But I’ve also seen regime used incorrectly on web pages, in online marketing, and in other places where it was deliberately chosen for use, and when the correct term should have been regimen. This has become my current peeve.

Regimen

A regimen is a systematic, planned routine of actions to accomplish something, usually with respect to diet, exercise, or medicine. It is a set of rules about food, exercise, or other health practices to become or stay healthy.

Examples:

The soldiers maintained a strict daily regimen of cardiovascular exercise and weightlifting.

Her beauty regimen consisted of avoiding unhealthy foods, washing with naturally sourced products, and getting a full night’s sleep.

The woman received weekly vitamin B shots as part of her treatment regimen for fatigue.

In the 1920s, only six nuns still inhabited the convent, contentedly following a regimen of solitude and contemplation.

Synonyms for regimen include procedure, routine, program, system, and schedule.

Regime

A regime is a form of government, a particular government, a ruling or prevailing system, or the period during which a particular government or ruling system is/was in power. Is it also the set of enduring rules, cultural and social norms that regulate the operation of a government or institution or are embedded in  institutionalized practices.

While it was originally a synonym for any type of government or governance, today the term regime tends to have a negative connotation, as it is usually reserved to describe strict, authoritarian or totalitarian governments or dictatorships.

Examples:

The old regime fell after the civil war.

It’s been a hard winter in North Korea, and the Kim family regime is once again struggling to feed its people.

Under the new regime, all workers must file a weekly report. 

Five thousand Tunisians have attempted to migrate to Italy since the collapse of the Ben Ali regime.

I’ve seen a lot of websites, advertising and even newspaper articles, incorrectly use the term regime to describe new diets, programs combining diet with exercise, and ways to take care of your skin, hair, or body. According to the definitions above, they should be using the term regimen. It irks me to no end.

And then, once again, it gets confusing for a Canadian:

It turns out the joke’s on me. As I researched the definitions of regimen and regime for this blog, I discovered that what I had learned and knew to be true – as described above – was only partially true.

The meanings for regimen and regime can vary, depending on whether you’re using American English or British English. And once again, Canadians are caught somewhere in between, as I had explored in a previous blog post (Spelling: American vs British vs Canadian).

American English tends to limit use of the word regime to governments and use of the word regimen to diet, health and medical contexts.

However, in British English, the term regime has a second meaning, as a regular pattern of action, or an orderly and systemic plan or process, i.e., similar to a regimen. British writers often use the words interchangeably when describing a systematic plan for food, exercise and/or health practices.

I learned something! Which means that, from now on when I read an online item that uses the word regime to describe the latest diet or exercise fad, I need to keep my irritation in check: Is this a British writer? Or is someone being sloppy and using regime incorrectly when they intend and actually mean regimen? Hmmm ….

I welcome your comments, as well as suggestions for future weekly writing tips.

Di cey 呆死

adjective   informal

UK  /ˈdaɪ.si/ US  /ˈdaɪ.si/

dicier | diciest

slightly dangerous or uncertain

有風險的；不確定的

dicey (adj)

1貿然的。

 Disarming the militias while violence flourishes will be a dicey proposition. 在暴力事件頻繁之際解除民兵武裝將是貿然之舉。

2棘手的。 His bungling of the dicey issue of torture is a case in point. 他搞砸棘手的虐囚問題就是最好的例子。

3不安全。

 Today the airline operates about 20 flights a day—and the destinations are often dicey. 目前這家航空公司每天大約飛行二十個班次，而且目的地多半不安全。

4險惡。 Things got dicey in the Middle East. 中東情勢變得險惡。

Metabolism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism

meta bol ism

noun [ C ]   BIOLOGY, MEDICAL   specialized

UK  /məˈtæb.əl.ɪ.zəm/ US  /məˈtæb.əl.ɪ.zəm/

all the chemical processes in your body, especially those that cause food to be used for energy and growth

新陳代謝

Exercise is supposed to speed up your metabolism.

人們認為運動可加速新陳代謝。

Metabolism and weight loss: How you burn calories

Find out how metabolism affects weight, the truth behind slow metabolism and how to burn more calories.

By Mayo Clinic Staff

Some people blame their weight on how their body breaks down food into energy, also known as metabolism. They think their metabolism is too slow. But is that really the cause? If so, is it possible to speed up the process?

It's true that the rate at which the body breaks down food is linked to weight. But a slow metabolism isn't usually the cause of weight gain.

Metabolism does help decide how much energy a body needs. But weight depends on how much a person eats and drinks combined with physical activity.

Metabolism: Converting food into energy

Metabolism is the process by which the body changes food and drink into energy. During this process, calories in food and drinks mix with oxygen to make the energy the body needs.

Even at rest, a body needs energy for all it does. This includes breathing, sending blood through the body, keeping hormone levels even, and growing and repairing cells. The number of calories a body at rest uses to do these things is known as basal metabolic rate, also called basal metabolism.

Muscle mass is the main factor in basal metabolic rate. Basal metabolic rate also depends on:

Body size and composition. People who are larger or have more muscle burn more calories, even at rest.

Sex. Men usually have less body fat and more muscle than do women of the same age and weight. That means men burn more calories.

Age. With aging, people tend to lose muscle. More of the body's weight is from fat, which slows calorie burning.

Besides the basal metabolic rate, two other things decide how many calories a body burns each day:

How the body uses food. Digesting, absorbing, moving and storing food burn calories. About 10% of calories eaten are used for digesting food and taking in nutrients. This can't be changed much.

How much a body moves. Any movement, such as playing tennis, walking to a store or chasing the dog, makes up the rest of the calories a body burns each day. This can be changed a lot, both by doing more exercise and just moving more during the day.

Daily activity that isn't exercise is called nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT). This includes walking around the house. It also includes activities such as gardening and housework, and even fidgeting. NEAT accounts for about 100 to 800 calories used daily.

Metabolism and weight

You might want to blame a medical condition for slow metabolism and weight gain. But rarely does a medical condition slow metabolism enough to cause a lot of weight gain. Conditions that can cause weight gain include Cushing syndrome or having an underactive thyroid gland, also known as hypothyroidism. These conditions are uncommon.

Many things affect weight gain. These likely include genes, hormones, diet and lifestyle, including sleep, physical activity and stress. You gain weight when you eat more calories than you burn — or burn fewer calories than you eat.

Some people seem to lose weight more quickly and more easily than others. But everyone loses weight by burning more calories than are eaten. The bottom line is calories count. To lose weight, you need to eat fewer calories or burn more calories through physical activity. Or you can do both.

A closer look at physical activity and metabolism

You can't easily control the speed of your basal metabolic rate, but you can control how many calories you burn through physical activity. The more active you are, the more calories you burn. In fact, some people who seem to have a fast metabolism are probably just more active — and maybe fidget more — than others.

To burn more calories, the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans recommends the following:

Aerobic activity. As a general goal, aim for at least 30 minutes of moderate physical activity every day. If you want to lose weight, maintain weight loss or meet specific fitness goals, you may need to exercise more.

Moderate aerobic exercise includes activities such as brisk walking, biking, swimming and mowing the lawn. Vigorous aerobic exercise includes activities such as running, heavy yardwork and aerobic dancing.

Strength training. Do strength training exercises for all major muscle groups at least two times a week. Strength training can include use of weight machines, your own body weight, heavy bags, resistance tubing or resistance paddles in the water, or activities such as rock climbing.

No magic bullet

Don't look to dietary supplements for help in burning calories or losing weight. Products that claim to speed up metabolism usually don't live up to their claims. Some may cause bad side effects.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration doesn't ask for proof that dietary supplements are safe or that they work. Question the claims that are made. Always let your health care providers know about supplements you take.

There's no easy way to lose weight. To take in fewer calories than you burn, the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends cutting 500 to 750 calories a day to lose 1 to 1.5 pounds (0.5 to 0.7 kilograms) a week. Add more physical activity to get to your weight-loss goals faster and maintain your weight loss.

A health care provider, such as a doctor or registered dietitian, can help you explore ways to lose weight.

https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/metabolism

Metabolism Definition

What is metabolism in the body? Metabolism encompasses the various biochemical processes, reactions, and conversions that transform one form of energy to another. Any molecule that’s synthesized or utilized in metabolism is a physically-recognizable form of energy. The basic law of conservation of energy in Physics states that “energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another”.  Following this basic rule, we can explain that biologically-active chemical molecules, too, can’t be destroyed. It can only be transformed from one physical form to another. (Feynman, 1970). And the processes that endow this molecule with the capabilities of “form transformation” are studied under “Energy Metabolism”!!!

In Biology, the definition of metabolism goes by “life-sustaining chemical reactions involving biologically-active chemical compounds and molecules”.

Figure 1: Define metabolism- Metabolic processes are tightly-regulated, interlinked processes that aid in molecular conversions from one form to another. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online

So when asked what is metabolism in biology, we can explain that it’s the biological way to conserve energy in some or the other form when different types of organisms produce or metabolize biologically-active chemical molecules.

Biology definition:
Metabolism is the process involving a set of chemical reactions that modifies a molecule into another to essentially maintain the living state of a cell or an organism. It includes all the chemical reactions involved in modifying a molecule into another. The major functions of metabolism are storage (i.e. converting certain molecules as an energy source for various cellular processes), transforming certain molecules as a component of biomolecules (e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids), and eliminating byproducts such as nitrogenous wastes.
Etymology: Greek metabolē (“change”), from metaballein (“to change”), meta- + ballein (“to throw”).
See also: anabolism, catabolism

Key Biochemicals

When we refer to biologically-active molecules, we are actually referring to chemical molecules that have biological activity and play a pivotal role in sustaining essential biological pathways. There are majorly 4 basic biochemicals: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. Apart from these four are two more biochemicals that are generally studied. They are coenzymes and minerals. All these molecules play some of the most vital roles without which the proper functioning, coordination, and efficiency of biological systems.

Figure 2: Different types of biochemicals that are involved in various metabolic processes of a living cell and organism. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online

Now let’s learn about each of them in more detail and gain some useful insights about their roles and purposes in metabolic activities. Before that, we should just know these basic things:

Anabolism definition: It’s the constructive metabolism accompanying synthesis and production of complex molecules from simpler monomers of biochemicals.

Catabolism definition: It’s the destructive metabolism accompanying the breakdown and degradation of complex molecules to simpler monomers of biochemicals.

1) Amino acids and proteins

What are amino acids and proteins?

Amino acids and proteins are the basic structural unit of all cells. Proteins are the building blocks of any biological entity. Proteins are actually polymers that are made up of monomers called amino acids. Amino acids are organic compounds having 2 essential groups: amino group and carboxylate groups. Then there’s one side chain group that is specific to each amino acid. Different or same amino acids are linked to each other via peptide bonds and form long peptides (polypeptides/ proteins).

Metabolism of proteins and amino acids

1. Protein Anabolism (Synthesis)

• Let’s define anabolism involving proteins! Protein anabolism is the process by which various proteins are synthesized inside/outside a biological body.
• It encompasses 2 processes: amino acid synthesis and protein synthesis (or polypeptide synthesis)
• Amino acids are of 2 types: essential and non-essential in humans. Non-essential ones can be synthesized by the human body but essential ones need to be taken via diet. There is no such concept of essential and non-essential amino acids for plants since they can produce all of them.
• Protein synthesis from amino acids encompasses 4 major steps: transcription, translation of proteins, PTMs (post-translational modifications), and protein folding

Figure 3: List of Essential and Non-essential amino acids. Image Source: Maria Victoria Gonzaga of Biology Online.

2. Protein Catabolism (Breakdown)

• The breakdown of proteins is specifically called proteolysis.
• After the proteins are broken down to the monomeric form i.e. amino acids, they are further reduced by degradations to individual atoms like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen (also sulfur, selenium in some specific amino acids).

Vital roles performed by proteins are:

• Catalysis of metabolic pathways
• Formation of cell and organism’s structure
• Intracellular transportation
• Cell signaling
• Antibodies and immune functions
• Hormones and storage

Figure 4: Proteins are one of the most important biochemicals in the biological world. They play some indispensable roles as described in the figure. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online.

2) Lipids

What are lipids?

Lipids are the biochemicals that don’t dissolve in polar solvents but only in non-polar solvents. Most of the lipids are either amphipathic or hydrophobic. Amphipathic, literally means a molecule that has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. There’s an entire array of lipids in the biological world ranging from simple fats to PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids), from mono- & triglycerides to long-chain prenol lipids, from different types of phospholipids and sphingolipids to sterols.

While some lipids are non-essential for animals and mammals as they can be derived from cetain lipids in the body, other lipids like ALA (alpha-linolenic acid) and LA (linoleic acid) are essential for the human body. There’s no such concept of essential and non-essential lipids for plants; they are the major producers of lipids on this planet.

• Site of major lipid and fat metabolism in animals: liver, pancreas
• Site of major lipid metabolism in plants: plastids and peroxisomes

Metabolism of lipids

1. Lipids Anabolism (Synthesis)

• Lipid anabolism is the process by which lipids are synthesized biologically.
• Plants are the major producers of lipids on the planet.
• Plants and bacterial systems are characteristically different from animals and mammals in lipid production since they possess distinct enzymes for each step of lipid biogenesis while the animals and mammals possess a multi-functional enzyme that carries out all the steps of lipid synthesis.
• Plants possess special desaturase enzymes that aid in the introduction of double bonds after carbon 9 and 10. Mammals are devoid of any such enzyme and thus can’t synthesize their own omega fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6); making these the “essential fatty acids” that need to be obtained from the diet.

Figure 5: Plants and Bacterial systems possess special desaturases that can help metabolically synthesize unsaturated lipids by introducing double bonds beyond C-9 and C-10. Image Credit: Fatiha AID, Intech Open.

2. Lipids Catabolism (Breakdown)

• The process of lipid breakdown is called beta-oxidation.
• Sites of beta-oxidation in plants: peroxisomes and glyoxysomes
• Sites of beta-oxidation in animals and mammals: mitochondria and peroxisomes

Figure 6: An overview of lipid catabolic process. Image Credit: AOCS Lipid Library

Vital roles performed by lipids are:

• Storage of energy
• Structural component of membranes
• Hormonal and homeostatic functions
• Signaling and chemical messenger
• “Cushion” of vital organs
• Transport of fat-soluble nutrients

Some essential roles performed by lipids are depicted in the figure below. Ranging from various biological metabolic functions of membrane composition to energy storage and from various cell signaling roles to hormonal and behavioral functions, lipids contribute to the basic and intricate functioning of a metabolic living cell.

Figure 7: Lipids perform some very essential roles in a cell metabolism and organism’s body as described in the figure. These are only a few of the many roles played by lipids. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online.

3) Carbohydrates

What are carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are basically the hydrates of carbon; mainly consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. The four main types are mono-, di-, oligo– and poly-saccharides.

• Monosaccharides: The main fuel source of all biological activities is monosaccharides. Glucose, ribose, fructose, trehalose, ribulose, xylulose, galactose, mannose, deoxyribose, and lyxose are examples of monosaccharides and serve as important precursors of many metabolic activities inside a cell.
• Disaccharides: Disaccharides are also simple carbohydrates that are formed via the joining of two monosaccharides by glycosidic linkages. Lactose, maltose, sucrose, and cellobiose are some examples of disaccharides.
• Oligosaccharides: Oligosaccharides are small polymers of sugars; of about 3-10 monosaccharides joined together. Raffinose series, maltodextrin, cellodextrin are some examples of oligosaccharides.
• Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are polymeric complexes that are composed of 200-2500 monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic linkages. They are both linear and branched. Starch, cellulose, chitin, glycogen, and galactogen are some examples of polysaccharides.

Figure 8: The 3 main types of carbohydrates and the basic pointers related to them. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online

Metabolism of carbohydrates

1. Carbohydrates Anabolism (Synthesis)

• Plants: Plants synthesize their own carbohydrates via photosynthesis from carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water.
• Animals & Fungi: Gluconeogenesis is an anabolic reaction method of carbohydrate production from non-carbohydrate sources in animals and mammals. The site of gluconeogenesis is the liver in vertebrates. There is another method of carbohydrate synthesis called glycogenesis; the process of conversion of glucose to glycogen.

2. Carbohydrates Catabolism (Breakdown)

• The breakdown of carbohydrates like glucose happens via glycolysis. Glycolysis happens in both plants and animals.
• The breakdown of carbohydrates like glycogen happens via glycogenolysis, a catabolic reaction process.

Figure 9: Various carbohydrates anabolic and catabolic processes are explained in the given flowchart. Image Source: Eschopp, CC license.

Vital roles performed by carbohydrates are:

• Storage of energy
• Structural components
• Coenzyme component
• Nucleotide component
• Role in the immune system, fertilization
• Role in growth and development

Figure 10: Various roles performed by carbohydrates in biological bodies. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online

4) Nucleotides

What are nucleotides?

Nucleotides are the basic building structural and functional blocks of nucleic acids.

• Nitrogenous Base + Sugar → Nucleoside
• Nucleoside + 1 Phosphate group → Nucleotide Monophosphate
• Nucleotide Monophosphate + 1 Phosphate group → Nucleotide Diphosphate
• Nucleotide Diphosphate + 1 Phosphate group → Nucleotide Triphosphate (Nucleic Acids)

The different types of nucleic acids and the nucleotide nomenclature can be understood from the table below:

Metabolism of nucleotides

1. Nucleotides Anabolism (Synthesis)

• All living cells are capable of producing nucleic acids.
• Dietary intake of nucleic acids isn’t really needed.
• Nucleic acids from the diet are actually degraded and reverted back for some more anabolic-type metabolic reactions via salvage pathways.

2. Nucleotides Catabolism (Breakdown)

• Catabolism of nucleotides and nucleic acids is a continuous process that keeps going on as the nucleotide anabolism.
• There are only two possible end destinations of nucleotides: one is degradation into waste product and final excretion, second is the re-entry of catabolized products via salvage pathway into nucleotide production.

Figure 11: General pathways for nucleotide catabolism. Image Source: Dsrapp, CC licensed.

Vital roles performed by nucleotides are:

• Storage and transfer of genetic information
• Co-substrates and coenzymes
• Cellular signaling
• Source of a phosphate group

Nucleotides perform some vital biological functions inside a living cell.

Figure 12: Some of the many important roles performed by nucleotides inside a cell are described in the picture. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online

5) Coenzymes

Coenzymes are very small molecules that themselves can’t catalyze biological reactions; the binding with apoenzymes makes holoenzymes. Holoenzymes are the active state of enzymes while apoenzymes are the inactive or less active state. Many different vitamins actually serve as coenzymes.

6) Minerals & Cofactors

Minerals and cofactors are some essential biochemicals in living bodies. Cofactors can be any of the two: organic or inorganic. They aid in the functioning of the enzymes.

• Cofactors are different from coenzymes as cofactors are in general chemical compounds while coenzymes are a type of cofactors that are biological molecules.
• On one side while cofactors are inorganic in nature, coenzymes are organic in nature.
• Cofactors are tightly/covalently bound to the enzymes while contrastingly the coenzymes are loosely bound to enzymes.
• Cofactor for enzymes examples: Metal ions Mg²⁺, Cu⁺, Mn²⁺

How Does Metabolism Work?

Metabolism works by the balance of anabolic and catabolic activities. Any metabolic activity that a living body performs requires some energy. For any such energy, there has to be a source of energy. Where does energy come from? Now, recall the law of Physics cited at the beginning of the article, which states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another. So the energy that’s needed for any work to be performed by a living body is derived from a storage source of energy, which is usually carbohydrate or lipid.

The next question is “how do such sources form in the first place?”

The answer to this is during the basic biological growth and development of a living being, it tends to either produce its own sources of energy by using other sources. For instance, plants use energy from sunlight to produce their own sources of food (energy). While on the other hand, animals and fungi depend on these photosynthetic organisms or other animals for their energy source.

Figure 13: Figurative representation of anabolic and catabolic processes. Source: Maria Victoria Gonzaga of BiologyOnline.com.

Types of Metabolism

There are basically 2 types of metabolism that must be very clear by now: anabolism (synthesis) and catabolism (degradation). Look at the table below to learn some major differences between the two types of metabolism.

Figure 14: Stages of anabolic reactions – DNA synthesis as an example. Image Source: Maria Victoria Gonzaga of Biology Online

When asked what are the 3 types of metabolism in the human body. We can explain endomorph, ectomorph, and mesomorph. Endomorphs have the slow metabolism amongst all while ectomorphs have the most active and the fastest metabolism. Mesomorphs have the perfect metabolism, which is a balanced one between endomorph (low metabolism) and ectomorph (fast metabolism).

Energy Transformations

Since the biological diversity is very wide, the types of energy transformations one can witness are also wide. On one hand, we see some organisms deriving their energy from light, while on the other hand, we see some others deriving their energy from minerals and chemicals. On one hand, we see some organisms synthesizing and storing their own food as storage of energy for future purposes, at the same time we see some others depending on the former ones for deriving their nutrition.

Oxidative phosphorylation

• Happens in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• Mainly constitutes two steps: electron removal and ATP derivation (for energy)
• Location in eukaryotes: Mitochondrial membrane (in ETC or electron transport chain)
• Location in prokaryotes: In the inner membrane of cells
• Also called electron transport-linked phosphorylation

Figure 15: ETC is the site of Oxidative phosphorylation. Image Credit: Fvasconcellos, CC-licensed.

Energy from inorganic compounds

• This type of metabolism is present in prokaryotes.
• Called “chemolithotrophy”
• Major role in biogeochemical cycles as these types of energy derivations aid in maintaining the flow of electrons, energy, and atoms from one medium to another. This also aids in soil fertility.

Energy from light

• This type of metabolism is present in green plants, algae, some bacteria, and some protists.
• It helps in photosynthesis in plants and algae.
• It helps in easy switching between two different modes of metabolism in bacterial and protist systems.

Xenobiotics and Redox Metabolism

Xenobiotics are those chemicals and molecules which if not properly managed inside a cell can cause immense harm to a biological system. So, a proper system is vital to manage, dispose and clear these harmful compounds in living beings. Humans possess some specialized enzymes that metabolize xenobiotics like:

Figure 16: Some xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes present in humans. Source: Akanksha Saxena of Biology Online

Thermodynamics of Living Organisms

It is expected out of living organisms and bodies that they will obey the basic laws of thermodynamics. The law of entropy states that in any closed system, entropy should always increase and “never” decrease.  Eventually, this leads to an increase in metabolism in biological things. But as we know that all living organisms dissipate energy and are open systems, the laws of thermodynamics aren’t really challenged much!

Regulation and Control

Regulations and control are important for a variety of reasons:
1) Helps in maintaining “homeostasis”- the constant basal metabolism of a body
2) Helps in proper signal management and interaction of an organism with its environment.

Control is of 2 ways:
1) Intrinsic Control– via intrinsic factors, feedback controls, allosteric regulatory systems
2) Extrinsic Control– via growth factors, hormones, secondary messenger systems, and protein phosphorylation steps

Evolution

Why do organisms and their metabolic processes evolve? The simple answer to this is that evolution always aims at the optimization of beings and processes. Hence, when organisms evolve, simultaneously the basic life processes also evolve. But when we look down the evolutionary timescale, we notice one very important thing that these basic metabolic processes of different biochemicals like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids didn’t change much down the timelines. This point towards an important finding. “All these metabolic processes have already been optimized via evolution so much that now all 3 domains of life share the same basics.” Additionally, the last ancestors that we notice also shared the same metabolic processes, pathways, and steps.

Investigation and manipulation

• To study the entire array of metabolic pathways and products, a special field has been defined now. It’s called Metabolome!
• Radioactive probes are used to trace the entire pathway and study the steps of importance.
• It has a role in metabolic engineering and aids in advancing our efforts for human welfare by playing with the biological model systems.

Conclusion

By now, you would have likely gained a lot of clarity about what metabolism means, how different variety of living organisms come on the same ground when metabolic processes are compared, why metabolism is so important in biology, what metabolism does across the variety of body tissues, examples of metabolism, and sites and functions of each pathway.

Metabolism includes processes for cell growth, reproduction, response to the environment, survival mechanisms, sustenance, and maintenance of cell structure and integrity. These chemical reactions utilize various enzymes. Metabolism may be categorized into two: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism includes a series of degradative chemical reactions that break down complex molecules into smaller units, usually releasing energy in the process. Anabolism includes a sequence of chemical reactions that constructs or synthesizes molecules from smaller units, usually requiring the input of energy (ATP) in the process. A disorder or dysfunction in the metabolism is referred to as a metabolic disorder.

https://byjus.com/biology/metabolism/

What is Metabolism?

“Metabolism refers to a series of chemical reactions that occur in a living organism to sustain life.”

Metabolism is the total amount of the biochemical reactions involved in maintaining the living condition of the cells in an organism. All living organisms require energy for different essential processes and for producing new organic substances.

The metabolic processes help in growth and reproduction and help in maintaining the structures of living organisms. The organisms respond to the surrounding environment due to metabolic activities. All the chemical reactions occurring in the living organisms from digestion to transportation of substances from cell to cell require energy.

Metabolic Process

There are two types of metabolic process:

• Catabolism
• Anabolism

Catabolism – This process is mainly involved in breaking down larger organic molecules into smaller molecules. This metabolic process releases energy.

Anabolism –  This process is mainly involved in building up or synthesizing compounds from simpler substances required by the cells. This metabolic process requires and stores energy.

Metabolism is related to nutrition and the existence of nutrients. Bioenergetics describes the metabolism as the biochemical pathway through which the cells obtain energy. One of the major aspects is the energy formation.

Also Read: Metabolic Pathways

Nutrition and Energy

The processes of metabolism depend on the nutrients that get digested to produce energy. This energy is necessary to synthesize nucleic acids, proteins and other biomolecules in our body.

Encompassed nutrients include various substances for the body requirements which are either in the sufficient amount or insufficient, resulting in poor health, concerning metabolism.

Necessary nutrients help by supplying the required energy and other necessary chemicals that the body cannot synthesize on its own. Food provides different substances that are essential for the bodybuilding and repairing of tissues along with the proper functioning of the body.

The diet requires both organic nutrients and inorganic chemical compounds.

Organic nutrients include fats, vitamins, carbohydrates, and proteins.

Inorganic chemical compounds include oxygen, water, and other dietary minerals.

Carbohydrates in Metabolism

Carbohydrates are supplied in three forms:

• Starch
• Sugar
• Cellulose

Starch and sugar are the major forms of energy for humans. Metabolism of carbohydrates and sugar helps in the production of glucose.

Also Read: Carbohydrate Metabolism

Proteins in Metabolism

Proteins are important for building tissues. They help in maintaining the structure of the cells, its functions, the formation of haemoglobin, and several other body functions. The amino acids of proteins are beneficial for nutrition. Few amino acids are not synthesized by the body and are taken in from the food we eat. These amino acids include:

• Lysine
• Tryptophan
• Methionine
• Isoleucine
• Leucine
• Phenylalanine
• Valine
• Threonine

How to Increase Metabolism?

Metabolism can be increased by:

• To be fit and healthy, we need to avoid more calories intake and lose extra pounds. We eat to deliver energy for our body to perform its functions. Eating too little quantities could slow down our metabolism and body cannot provide essential minerals. As per the research, extreme dieting leads to weight loss which is muscle mass and not fat mass.                                                                                         
• Having proper breakfast, boost up the body’s metabolism and keeps us energetic throughout the day. Skipping morning breakfast are more likely to have poor metabolic energy.
• Caffeine stimulates the central nervous system and can activate our metabolism rate by 5 to 8 percent.
• According to researchers, fibre can help in burning fat by 30 percent. People who include more fibre in their diet remain fit and healthy.
• Including more organic foods like peaches, bell peppers, celery, apples, lettuce, grapes can boost up the metabolism rate in our body.

Also Read: Metabolism – The basis of living state

Stay tuned with BYJU’S to learn more about metabolism, its definition, types and process.

neuron

neuron

noun [ C ]   BIOLOGY   (UK also neurone)

UK  /ˈnjʊə.rɒn/ US  /ˈnʊr.ɑːn/

a nerve cell that carries information between the brain and other parts of the body

神經元，神經細胞

placebo

placebo

noun [ C ]

UK  /pləˈsiː.bəʊ/ US  /pləˈsiː.boʊ/

plural placebos

a substance given to someone who is told that it is a particular medicine, either to make that person feel as if they are getting better or to compare the effect of the particular medicine when given to others

安慰劑

She was only given a placebo, but she claimed she got better - that's the placebo effect.

她只是服用了安慰劑，但她說好一些了——這就是「寬心藥效」。

something that is given to try to satisfy a person who has not been given the thing they really want

使人寬慰的事；安撫話

These small concessions have been made as a placebo to stop the workers making further demands.

這些小讓步就像安慰劑一樣，可以避免工人提出更多的要求。

pore

pore

noun [ C ]

UK  /pɔːr/ US  /pɔːr/

a very small hole in the skin of people or other animals, or a similar hole on the surface of plants or rocks

毛孔；氣孔；小孔

Sweat passes through the pores and cools the body down.

汗水從毛孔中排出以降低體溫。

Pimples form when pores become blocked with dirt.

汙物堵塞毛孔就會長粉刺。

re flex

reflex

noun

UK  /ˈriː.fleks/ US  /ˈriː.fleks/

[ C ]

a physical reaction to something that you cannot control

反射動作；反射作用；本能反應

I'm sorry I punched him, it was a reflex action/response.

我很抱歉打了他，那不過是一種反射動作／本能反應而已。

 reflexes [ plural ]

the ability to react quickly

反應能力

Fighter pilots need good/fast reflexes.

戰鬥機飛行員需要有很好／快的反應能力。

reflex

adjective   MATHEMATICS   specialized

UK  /ˈriː.fleks/ US  /ˈriː.fleks/

A reflex angle is more than 180° and less than 360°.

優角（大於180°和小於360°的一個角）的

flex

verb [ T ]

UK  /fleks/ US  /fleks/

to bend an arm, leg, etc. or tighten a muscle

活動（手臂、腿等）；使（肌肉）繃緊

First, straighten your legs, then flex your feet.

首先，伸直雙腿，接著活動雙腳。

He tried to impress me by flexing his huge muscles.

他繃緊他那些大塊的肌肉，想吸引我注意他。

習語

flex your muscles

flex

noun [ C or U ] UK

UK  /fleks/ US  /fleks/

(US cord)

(a length of) wire with a plastic cover used for connecting a piece of electrical equipment to a supply of electricity

（一段）花線，（一段）皮線

The flex on this iron isn't long enough to reach the socket.

熨斗的電源皮線不夠長，接不到插座上。

flex your muscles

(US flex your muscle)

to try to worry an opponent or enemy by publicly showing military, political, or financial power

（透過軍事、政治或經濟實力的展示向對手）顯示實力，顯示力量

The parade is the first sign of the new regime flexing its military muscles.

閱兵式是新政權顯示其軍事實力的第一個信號。

今日片語

片語 to flex one’s muscles 的字面意思是“活動肌肉”，人們借用這個形象的畫面來描述一個人或機構對他人“顯示實力，展示力量”。

例句

Our boss spent a lot of time flexing her muscles at the meeting this morning. She wants us to know she’s in charge.

在晨會上，我們的老板花了很長時間向我們展示她的實力。這麼做是為了讓我們知道在這里她說了算。

Don’t pay any attention to Steve. He just likes to flex his muscles around new people but he’s a very sweet and gentle guy, really.

不用把史蒂夫的舉動太放在心上，他就是喜歡向新來的人展示自己的能力，其實他是個非常和善溫柔的人。

I thought you were a bully when we first met, but now I know you I realise you were just flexing your muscles.

咱倆剛認識的時候我覺得你就會欺負人，但現在我明白了當初你也就是在展示自己的能力。

re lapse

relapse

verb [ I ]   formal

UK  /rɪˈlæps/ US  /rɪˈlæps/

to become ill or start behaving badly again, after making an improvement

（病好轉後）復發；故態復萌；重新墮落

She managed to stop using drugs for a month, but then relapsed.

她堅持了一個月沒有吸毒，但是接著又故態復萌。

He looked happy for a brief while, before relapsing into silent misery.

有那麼一陣子他看上去很幸福，但接著又陷入了無言的苦惱中。

relapse

noun [ C ]   formal

UK  /ˈriː.læps/ US  /ˈriː.læps/

If someone who is getting better after an illness has a relapse, they become ill again.

舊病復發

She was looking quite healthy on Friday, but she had/suffered a relapse over the weekend and was taken back into hospital.

週五的時候她看上去還很健康，但到了週末病情復發，又被送回了醫院。

lapse

noun

UK  /læps/ US  /læps/

lapse noun (FAILURE)

[ C ]

a temporary failure

過失，小失誤

a lapse of concentration

走神

The management's decision to ignore the safety warnings demonstrated a remarkable lapse of judgment.

管理層作出的對安全警告不予理會的決定是決策上的明顯失誤。

a memory lapse

一時想不起來

lapse noun (PERIOD)

[ C usually singular ]

a period of time passing between two things happening

（兩件事之間的）間隔時間

a time lapse/a lapse of time

時間間隔

He turned up again after a lapse of two years.

兩年後他又露面了。

lapse

verb [ I ]

UK  /læps/ US  /læps/

to end legally or officially by not being continued or made effective for a longer period

期滿終止；失效；廢止

The association needs to win back former members who have allowed their subscriptions to lapse.

該協會需要重新把那些已經期滿退出的會員吸引回來。

lapse into sth

— phrasal verb with lapse verb [ I ]

UK  /læps/ US  /læps/

(LESS ACTIVE)

to start speaking or behaving in a less active or acceptable way

（言談舉止）陷入（消極的狀態）；顯得異常

No one could think of anything more to say, and the meeting lapsed into silence.

所有人都想不出該再說些甚麽，於是會議陷入了沈默。

re tina

 retina

noun [ C ]

UK  /ˈret.ɪ.nə/ US  /ˈret.ən.ə/

plural retinas or retinae

the area at the back of the eye that receives light and sends pictures of what the eye sees to the brain

視網膜

https://www.ezname.org/n/TINA

Schi zo phrenia

noun [ U ]

UK  /ˌskɪt.səˈfriː.ni.ə/ US  /ˌskɪt.səˈfriː.ni.ə/

a serious mental illness in which someone cannot understand what is real and what is imaginary

精神分裂症

He was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia.

偏執型精神分裂症

informal

the state of having qualities or attitudes that are different from each other and do not work well together

雙重人格，反覆無常

Lexington, as a prison and a hospital, was an expression of America's schizophrenia about how to treat addiction.

列剋星敦是一座醫院卻又是一座監獄，美國在毒癮治療上是如何精神分裂的在這裡體現了出來。

Geneticists regard schizophrenia as a complex disease.

The study provided a valuable new insight into how to treat schizophrenia.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets

 anatomy

noun

UK  /əˈnæt.ə.mi/ US  /əˈnæt̬.ə.mi/

[ U ]

the scientific study of the body and how its parts are arranged

解剖學

An understanding of human anatomy is important to a dancer.

對於一個舞蹈演員來說，通曉一些人體解剖學知識非常重要。

He later became professor of anatomy at Kiel.

後來他成為基爾大學的解剖學教授。

[ C or U ]

the structure of an animal or plant

解剖構造；（動植物）結構

the female anatomy

女性人體解剖構造

the anatomy of a leaf

葉子的結構

[ C ] humorous

a person's body

身體

On which part of her anatomy is she tattooed?

她的紋身刺在甚麼部位？

[ C ] formal

a detailed examination of a subject

剖析，分析；細察

The whole play reads like an anatomy of evil.

整個劇本讀起來就如同是一份對邪惡的剖析報告。

Treatments for schizophrenia may include:

A combination of medications, including antipsychotics

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or other types of evidence-based psychotherapy

Lifestyle changes, such as a healthy diet and regular exercise

Housing that fosters socializing and community living

Ongoing care from a clinical team

Community and/or family support

“Research shows that treatment within the first two years of symptom onset shows significantly improved treatment outcomes, even full recovery being possible,” says Melissa Sampath, a licensed professional counselor and the vice president of community mental health services at Care Plus in Paramus, New Jersey.

https://www.forbes.com/health/